Over 500 million years plants have been evolving alongside other organisms and interacting with them. In recent years, a form of mutualistic symbiosis has been attracting much attention to the lithosphere surrounding plant roots. This mutualism is between mycorrhizal fungi and plants. The word Mycorrhizae signifies the relationship and role the fungi (Myco) have around plant root systems (Rhizosphere), whereby the fungi can increase the plants access to nutrients and water by

Rusts are one of the most complex plant pathogens, with a diverse range of species estimated in size somewhere between 5000-6000, as well as a large range of hosts. Hosts include dicotyledonous families such as Compositaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Leguminaceae and Moncot families such as Orchidaceae and Lilaceae, and ofcourse of most international importance Poaceae (grasses, mayz & Wheat). Rusts could be described as visible black, yellow, orange, red, or brown pustules growing on

Unlike other wasp species, the Wood Wasp or Giant Horntail has no clear abdominal segmentation and instead has a long circular body. This is because it’s not strictly a wasp. More accurately a primitive member of the Wasp order ‘Hymenoptera’. Most people assume the large needle like form protruding from the Wood wasp is a stinger. This however is not the case as it is a modified and incredibly long ovipositor (egg laying tube). The common name – ‘Horntail’ is based upon this

The definition of an xerophyte is a plant adapted to live in desiccated environments, needing very little water. Usually, they grow in areas with low levels of water in the soil and atmosphere. Examples of such areas could be the desert or sand dunes. These adaptations result in characteristically identifiable traits, such as curled grass leaves; ericoid leaves; and fleshy succulent leaves. The fleshy enlargement on the leaves of many xerophytes such as succulents and cacti a

Dionaea muscipula, more commonly known as the Venus Fly trap is-as the name suggests a carnivorous plant. As well as being carnivorous, Venus fly traps do photosynthesise just like other plants, but their natural boggy shady habitats make it difficult to do so. A sweet nectar is secreted around the inside of the trap as a delicious treat for attracting unsuspecting insects. These helpless victims then touch the small trigger hairs on the inside of the trap, firing off an elec

Revisiting the topic of biomimicry from my last post, I thought it apt to mention Butterflies wings. Butterflies from the Lepidoptera order are distinctively recognized by their bold, garish array of colour displayed on their wings. This is used as a method of communication enabling sparring, courting, mating and hiding, as well as mimicry to ward off predators. Most species wings have a layer of overlapping scales producing magnificent iridescent colouring. In the 1980’s it

A notable and defining characteristic of earwigs, aside from their massive pincers, is their unexpected wings. Their short front wings create a casing for intricately origami like folded hind wings. These folded wings are semi transparent and paper thin like skin. Hence the insect order name ‘Dermaptera’ meaning skin like. These incredible wings can expand to up to fifteen times their original folded size when in flight, thanks to their protein rich rubbery joints which almos

There are numerous growth responses within the physiology and morphology of plant leaves when exposed to different levels of light. These responses can affect both structure and biochemistry. In the case many plants, including Beech trees Fagus sylvatica, it can result in a completely different leaf type: Sun leaves and shade leaves. Sun leaves have adapted to more exposure to light and will be positioned generally at higher areas on the plant (areas of more light). They usua

Martin Vahl, a Danish mycologist described Armillaria mellea as Agaricus mellea in 1790 , and it is now commonly known as Honey fungus. Honey fungus can destroy immense numbers of plants and a diverse range of species, mainly because of its immense network of spreading underground rhizomorphs which can attack vunerable roots of perennial plants and further the decaying of rotten wood. These Rhizomorphs dominate the top soil as a clearly visible creamy-white fungal mass or a p

Rose black spot is caused by the fungi Diplocarpon rosae, a pathogen that before the 1960's had very little attention because of high pollution levels in cities restricting it. However, due to drops in Sulphur dioxide levels in the atmosphere and a better air quality from then onwards it has had a massive economic impact on the rose industry, estimated in the 10’s of billions and is presently the most damaging widespread disease of cultivated roses. Initially a rose black spo

The phylum Mollusca contains around 85,000 species, accounting for 23% of named marine organisms. These animals are made up of a visceral or unsegmented body mass containing organs, a muscular foot, and a head, as well as a respiratory opening on the side, a tail, and sensory/optical tentacles. Snails unlike slugs develop a calcareous shell out of a fleshy mantle. Slugs and snails eat foliage using a rasping tongue, and may effect all crop types all year round. During humid n

Found this little guy underneath an overgrown Anemanthele in a herbaceous border, nestled amongst a nest of Autumn leaves. We created a new hedgehog hut above him using dry leaves and a crate. We've left enough room for him to get out, but gave lots of extra insulation to get him through the rest of Winter. Generally, hedgehogs hibernate between December to March. Unfortunately, according to the Wildlife Trust, Hedgehogs are waking up from hibernation far more frequently duri

Arbutus unedo or Strawberry tree. This unique tree has Strawberry like berries, but is of no relation to Fragaria - to which the name is attributed. The strawberry like berries are also far from being tasty, hence the name Unedo - translating as 'I eat one' from Plinys writtings. Assuming you wouldn't want another... Although, apparently good for use in preserves. Unlike other trees and shrubs in the Ericaceae family, Arbutus can grow in lime non acidic soils. It is native to

Pinus aristata. The oldest living tree on Earth. Commonly known as the Bristlecone Pine, and given the individual name Methuselah after someone in the Bible who had the longest lifespan recorded. This Pinus aristata 'Methuselah' is estimated to have been alive for 4800 years. Each callice, twist and knot in the development of this ancient Ent is a result of exposure to around 4800 Summers and 4800 winters. It must have germinated around the same time human civilisation was de

The impact of pesticides has been a hot topic of debate, after various studies a couple of years ago concluded noenicitinoids use threatens pollinating insects, especially bees. This resulted in the European union banning the use of these pesticides in the industry creating a controversial situation, as a complete ban of this pesticide staple will have a detrimental effect on the industry. Estimates determine the EU sugar industry having yield losses of up to 50% due to the b

Urban heat island phenomenon, where buildings and pavements absorb and reflect heat is becoming a heightened problem due to urban population increase and climate change. Prior to the 1900’s, before cooling fans and air conditioning, people planted trees to provide shade and cool their houses. Urban tree planting can negate the effects of urban heat island by creating lower temperature microclimates. Additional studies indicate this influencing the urban atmospheric environmen

Vertical greening systems are becoming an ever-increasing focus within contemporary architecture due to their ability to decrease run-off potential, atmospheric pollution, and building maintenance needs. This can also increase building insulation and indeed mitigate the effects of the urban heat island phenomenon, where buildings and pavements absorb and reflect heat. This is especially becoming a heightened problem due to urban population increase and climate change. Greenin

Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS), have always ranked high on the global agenda due to their sustainable development potential focusing on the management of surface water drainage in urban environments through monitoring water quantity and quality, as well as concentrating on the perceived recreational amenities associated with SUDS. This provides an alternative to traditional drainage systems which could be perceived as wasteful, due to fresh water being labelled by

Black thorn or Prunus spinosa: The producer of Sloe berries. The long horizontal thorns on Blackthorn are actualy modified stems. These stems drop their leaves in the summer to create prickly barriers along field margins - providing much protection to hedge dwelling wildlife. Interestingly, the reason for their dark colouring is their high alkaloid content, which is also thought to be responsible for the severe irritation (and in some cases, plant thorn athritus) that unfolds

The 1994 discovery of Wollemi pine, Known as Wollemia nobilis is one of the greatest botanical discoveries in modern day. Finding what is essentially a living a fossil belonging to a 200-million-year-old family in present day is in my opinion one of the greatest rewards we as a species could receive for devoting so much time to science and history, and it has been a pleasure to have been able to work alongside these rare specimens for a time. Considering Wollemia is indeed an